J. Wang. (2016)cite arxiv:1602.05569Comment: Ph.D. thesis, MIT, Dept. of Physics. Defended and submitted in May 2015. Citable URI: http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/99285 Partially based on arxiv:1212.4863, arXiv:1306.3695, arxiv:1307.7480, arXiv:1310.8291, arXiv:1403.5256, arXiv:1404.7854, arXiv:1405.7689, arXiv:1408.6514, arXiv:1409.3216. With refinement. 250 pages.