This paper examines whether poorly performing companies use textual
complexity to obfuscatein the Operating and Financial Review (OFR)
andthus undermine effective communication and goodgovernance. Prior
research on the lsquo obfuscation hypothesis rsquo has reached confused
and contradictory conclusions. The OFR is a usefulobject for testing
the hypothesis because itssemi-regulated status provides a measure
ofcommonality of content while leaving scope forvariability in textual
complexity. This studyexamines whole texts, employs a larger numberof
variables and proxy measures than previousstudies, and uses regression
analysis, toovercome some of the possible causes ofinconsistency
in previous results. It concludesthat poorly performing companies
do notobfuscate by the use of textual complexity.OFRs are nonetheless
textually complex and byno means all this complexity can be attributedto
the complexity of the underlying activitiesto be described. The consequences
of thisfinding for regulators and researchers arebriefly examined.
The weakness of the evidencefor the hypothesised obfuscation by textualcomplexity
shifts attention to other forms ofobfuscation and some suggestions
for futureresearch are made.
Email: b.a.rutherford@ukc.ac.uk
References
Adler, N.J., R. Doktor and S.G. Redding: 1986, ldquoFrom the Atlantic
to the Pacific Century: Cross-Cultural Management Reviewedrdquo,
Journal of Management 12: 295?318.
Bantel, K.A. and S.E. Jackson: 1989, ldquoTop Management and Innovations
in Banking: Does the Composition of the Top Team Make a Difference?rdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 10: 107?124.
Barkema, H.G., J.H.J. Bell and J.M. Pennings: 1996, ldquoForeign Entry,
Cultural Barriers, and Learningrdquo, Strategic Management Journal
17: 151?166.
Bergh, D.D.: 1995, ldquoProblems with Repeated Measures Analysis:
Demonstration with a Study of the Diversification and Performance
Relationshiprdquo, Academy of Management Journal 38: 1692?1708.
Bergh, D.D.: 2001, ldquoExecutive Retention and Acquisition Outcomes:
A Test of Opposing Views on the Influence of Organization Tenurerdquo,
Journal of Management 27: 603?622.
Boyacigiller, N.: 1990, ldquoThe Role of Expatriates in the Management
of Interdependence, Complexity and Risk in Multinational Corporationsrdquo,
Journal of International Business Studies 21: 357?381.
Brett, J.M.: 1984, ldquoJob Transitions and Personal and Role Developmentrdquo,
in K. Rowland and G. Ferris (eds.), Research in Personnel and Human
Resource Management (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press), pp. 155?185.
Buono, A.F., J.L. Bowditch and J.W. Lewis: 1985, ldquoWhen Cultures
Collide: The Anatomy of a Mergerrdquo, Human Relations 98: 477?500.
Calori, R., M. Lubatkin and P. Very: 1994, ldquoControl Mechanisms
in Cross-Border Acquisitions: An International Comparisonrdquo, Organization
Studies 15: 361?379.
Cannella, A.A. Jr. and D.C. Hambrick: 1993, ldquoEffects of Executive
Departures on the Performance of Acquired Firmsrdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 14: 137?152.
Castaneda, M.B.,J.R. Levin and R.B. Dunham: 1993, ldquoUsing Planned
Comparisons in Management Research: A Case for the Bonferroni Procedurerdquo,
Journal of Management 19: 707?724.
Chaganti, R. and R. Sambharya: 1987, ldquoStrategic Orientation and
Characteristics of Upper Managementrdquo, Strategic Management Journal
8: 393?401
Chang, S.J.: 1995, ldquoInternational Expansion Strategy of Japanese
Firms: Capability Building through Sequential Entryrdquo, Academy
of Management Journal 38: 383?407.
Chang, S.J. and P. Rosenzweig: 2001, ldquoThe Choice of Entry Mode
in Sequential Foreign Direct Investmentrdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 22: 747?776.
Chatterjee, S., M.H. Lubatkin, D.M. Schweiger and Y. Weber: 1992,
ldquoCultural Differences and Shareholder Value in Related Mergers:
Linking Equity and Human Capitalrdquo, Strategic Management Journal
13: 319?334.
Cotton, J.L. and J.M. Tuttle: 1986, ldquoEmployee Turnover: A Meta-Analysis
and Review with Implications for Researchrdquo, Academy of Management
Review 11: 55?70.
Coughlan, A.T. and R.M. Schmidt: 1985, ldquoExecutive Compensation,
Management Turnover, and Firm Performance: An Empirical Investigationrdquo,
Journal of Accounting and Economics 7: 43?66.
Datta, D.K.: 1991, ldquoOrganizational Fit and Acquisition Performance:
Effects of Post-Acquisition Integrationrdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 12: 281?297.
Dickter, D.N., M. Roznowski and D.A. Harrison: 1996, ldquoTemporal
Tempering: An Event History Analysis of the Process of Voluntary
Turnoverrdquo, Journal of Applied Psychology 81: 705?716.
Dierickx, I. and K. Cool: 1989, ldquoAsset Stock Accumulation and
Sustainability of Competitive Advantagerdquo, Management Science
35: 1504?1511.
Downes, M. and A.S. Thomas: 2000, ldquoKnowledge Transfer through
Expatriation: The U-Curve Approach to Overseas Staffingrdquo, Journal
of Management Issues 12: 131?149.
Erramilli, M.K. and C.P. Rao: 1993, ldquoService Firms'' International
Entry-Mode Choice: A Modified Transaction-Cost Analysis Approachrdquo,
Journal of Marketing 57: 19?38.
Ettlie, J.E. and E.M. Reza: 1992, ldquoOrganizational Integration
and Process Innovationrdquo, Academy of Management Journal 35: 795?827.
Fama, E.F. and M.C. Jensen: 1983, ldquoSeparation of Ownership and
Controlrdquo, Journal of Law and Economics 26: 301?325.
Finkelstein, S.: 1992, ldquoPower in Top Management Teams: Dimensions,
Measurement, and Validationrdquo, Academy of Management Journal 35:
505?538.
Finkelstein, S. and D.C. Hambrick: 1990, ldquoTop Management Team
Tenure and Organizational Outcomes: The Moderating Role of Managerial
Discretionrdquo, Administrative Science Quarterly 35: 484?503.
Finkelstein, S. and D.C. Hambrick: 1996, Strategic Leadership: Top
Executives and Their Effects on Organizations (Minneapolis/St. Paul:
West Publishing Company).
Friedman, S.D. and H. Singh: 1989, ldquoCEO Succession and Stockholder
Reaction: The Influence of Organizational Context and Event Contentrdquo,
Academy of Management Journal 32: 718?744.
Furtado, E.P.H. and V. Karan: 1990, ldquoCauses, Consequences, and
Shareholder Wealth Effects of Management Turnover: A Review of the
Empirical Evidencerdquo, Financial Management 19: 60?75.
Gabarro, J.J.: 1987, The Dynamics of Taking Charge (Boston: Harvard
Business School Press).
Ghemawat, P.: 2001, ldquoDistance Still Mattersrdquo, Harvard Business
Review 79: 137?147.
Hall, D.T.: 1984, ldquoHuman Resource Development and Organizational
Effectivenessrdquo, in C.J. Fombrun, N.M. Tichy and M.A. Devanna
(eds.), Strategic Human Resource Management (New York: Wiley), pp.
159?181.
Hambrick, D.C. and A.A. Cannella Jr.: 1993, ldquoRelative Standing:
A Framework for Understanding Departures of Acquired Executivesrdquo,
Academy of Management Journal 36: 733?762.
Hambrick, D.C. and G.D. Fukutomi: 1991, ldquoThe Seasons of a CEO''s
Tenurerdquo, Academy of Management Review 16: 719?742.
Hambrick, D.C., M.A. Geletkanycz and J.W. Fredrickson: 1993, ldquoTop
Executive Commitment to the Status Quo: Some Tests of its Determinantsrdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 14: 401?418.
Haspeslagh, P.C. and D.B. Jemison: 1991, Managing Acquisitions: Creating
Value through Corporate Renewal (New York: The Free Press)
Helmich, D.L. and W.B. Brown: 1972: ldquoSuccessor Type and Organizational
Change in the Corporate Enterpriserdquo, Administrative Science Quarterly
17: 371?378.
Hofstede, G.: 2001, Culture''s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors,
Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage Publications).
Hunt, J.W.: 1990, ldquoChanging Pattern of Acquisition Behaviour in
Takeovers and the Consequences for Acquisition Processesrdquo, Strategic
Management Journal 11: 69?77.
Jensen, M.C. and W.H. Meckling: 1976, ldquoTheory of the Firm: Managerial
Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structurerdquo, Journal of Financial
Economics 3: 305?360.
Katz, R.: 1982, ldquoThe Effects of Group Longevity on Project Communication
and Performancerdquo, Administrative Science Quarterly 27: 81?104.
Kobrin, S.: 1991, ldquoAn Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of
Global Integrationrdquo, Strategic Management Journal 12: 17?31.
Krishnan, H.A., A. Miller and W.Q. Judge: 1997, ldquoDiversification
and Top Management Team Complementarity: Is Performance Improved
by Merging Similar or Dissimilar Teams?rdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 18: 361?374.
Krug, J.A. and W.H. Hegarty: 1997, ldquoPostacquisition Turnover among
U.S. Top Management Teams: An Analysis of the Effects of Foreign
vs. Domestic Acquisitions of U.S. Targetsrdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 18: 667?675.
Krug, J.A. and W.H. Hegarty: 2001, ldquoPredicting Who Stays and Leaves
after an Acquisition: A Study of Top Managers in Multinational Firmsrdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 22: 185?196.
Krug, J.A. and D. Nigh: 1998, ldquoTop Management Departures in Cross-Border
Acquisitions: Governance Issues in an International Contextrdquo,
Journal of International Management 4: 267?287.
Krug, J.A. and D. Nigh: 2001, ldquoExecutive Perceptions in Foreign
and Domestic Acquisitions: An Analysis of Foreign Ownership and its
Effect on Executive Faterdquo, Journal of World Business 36: 85?105.
Lane, P.J. and M. Lubatkin: 1998, ldquoRelative Absorptive Capacity
and Interorganizational Learningrdquo, Strategic Management Journal
19: 461?477.
LaTour, S.A. and P.W. Miniard: 1983, ldquoThe Misuse of Repeated Measures
Analysis in Marketing Researchrdquo, Journal of Marketing Research
20: 45?57.
Lee, T.W. and T.R. Mitchell: 1994, ldquoAn Alternative Approach: The
Unfolding Model of Voluntary Employee Turnoverrdquo, Academy of Management
Review 19: 51?89.
Li, J.: 1995, ldquoForeign Entry and Survival: Effects of Strategic
Choices on Performance in International Marketsrdquo, Strategic Management
Journal 16: 333?351.
Littell, R.C., G.A. Milliken, W.W. Stroup and R.D. Wolfinger: 1996,
SAS System for Mixed Models (Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.).
Louis, M.L.: 1982, ldquoManaging Career Transition: A Missing Link
in Career Developmentrdquo, Organizational Dynamics 10: 68?77.
Lubatkin, M., D.M. Schweiger and Y. Weber: 1999, ldquoTop Management
Turnover in Related M & As: An Additional Test of the Theory of Relative
Standingrdquo, Journal of Management 25: 55?73.
Michel, J.G. and D.C. Hambrick: 1992, ldquoDiversification Posture
and Top Management Team Characteristicsrdquo, Academy of Management
Journal 35: 9?37.
Mobley, W.H.: 1982, Employee Turnover: Causes, Consequences and Control
(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley).
Mobley, W.H., R.W. Griffeth, H.H. Hand and B.M. Meglino: 1979, ldquoReview
and Conceptual Analysis of the Employee Turnover Processrdquo, Psychological
Bulletin 63: 408?414.
Morrison, R.F. and T.M. Brantner: 1992, ldquoWhat Enhances or Inhibits
Learning a New Job? A Basic Career Issuerdquo, Journal of Applied
Psychology 77: 926?940.
O''Brien, R.G. and M.K. Kaiser: 1985, ldquoMANOVA Method for Analyzing
Repeated Measures Designs: An Extensive Primerrdquo, Psychological
Bulletin 97: 316-333
Olie, R.: 1994, ldquoShades of Culture and Institutions in International
Mergersrdquo, Organization Studies 15: 381?405.
Ostroff, C. and S.W.J. Kozlowski: 1992, ldquoOrganizational Socialization
as a Learning Process: The Role of Information Acquisitionrdquo,
Personnel Psychology 45: 849?874.
Pablo, A.L.: 1994, ldquoDeterminants of Acquisition Integration Level:
A Decision-Making Perspectiverdquo, Academy of Management Journal
37: 803?836.
Penrose, E.T.: 1959, The Theory of the Growth of the Firm (White Plains,
NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc.).
Porter, M.E.: 1986, Competition in Global Industries (Boston: Harvard
Business School Press).
Porter, L.W., R.M. Steers, W.H. Mowday and P.V. Boulian: 1974, ldquoOrganizational
Commitment, Job-Satisfaction, and Turnover among Psychiatric Techniciansrdquo,
Journal of Applied Psychology 59: 603?609.
Price, J.L.: 1977, The Study of Turnover (Ames: Iowa State University
Press).
Ravenscraft, D.J. and F.M. Scherer: 1987, ldquoMergers and Managerial
Performancerdquo, in J.C. Coffee Jr., L. Lowenstein and S. Rose-Ackerman
(eds.), Knights, Raiders, and Targets (New York: Oxford University
Press), pp. 194?210.
Romanelli, E. and M.L. Tushman: 1988, ldquoExecutive Leadership and
Organizational Outcomes: An Evolutionary Perspectiverdquo, in D.C.
Hambrick (ed.), The Executive Effect: Concepts and Methods for Studying
Top Managements (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press).
Roth, K.: 1995, ldquoManaging International Interdependence: CEO Characteristics
in a Resource-Based Frameworkrdquo, Academy of Management Journal
38: 200?231.
Roth, K. and A.J. Morrison: 1990, ldquoAn Empirical Analysis of the
Integration-Responsiveness Framework in Global Industriesrdquo, Journal
of International Business Studies 21: 541?564.
Roth, K., D.M. Schweiger and A.J. Morrison: 1991, ldquoGlobal Strategy
Implementation at the Business Unit Level: Operational Capabilities
and Administrative Mechanismsrdquo, Journal of International Business
Studies 22: 369?402.
Salancik, G.R. and J. Pfeffer: 1980, ldquoEffects of Ownership and
Performance on Executive Tenure in U.S. Corporationsrdquo, Academy
of Management Journal 23: 653?664.
Sallivan, J. and I. Nonaka: 1988, ldquoCulture and Strategic Issue
Categorization Theoryrdquo, International Review 28: 6?10.
Schneider, S.C. and A. De Meyer: 1991, ldquoInterpreting and Responding
to Strategic Issues: The Impact of National Culturerdquo, Strategic
Management Journal 12: 307?320.
Schwartz, K.B. and K. Menon: 1985, ldquoExecutive Succession in Failing
Firmsrdquo, Academy of Management Journal 28: 680?686.
Schweiger, D.M. and A.S. DeNisi: 1991, ldquoCommunication with Employees
Following a Merger: A Longitudinal Field Experimentrdquo, Academy
of Management Journal 34: 110?135.
Staw, B.M. and J. Ross: 1987, ldquoKnowing When to Pull the Plugrdquo,
Harvard Business Review 65: 68?74.
Thomas, A.S., R.J. Litschert and K. Ramaswamy: 1991, ldquoThe Performance
Impact of Strategy-Manager Coalignment: An Empirical Examinationrdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 12: 509?522.
Timm, N.H. and T.A. Mieczkowski: 1997, Univariate and Multivariate
General Linear Models: Theory and Applications Using SAS Software
(BBU Press).
Trautwein, F.: 1990, ldquoMerger Motives and Merger Prescriptionsrdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 11: 283?295.
Vancil, R.F.: 1987, Passing the Baton (Boston: Harvard Business School
Press).
Walsh, J.P.: 1988, ldquoTop Management Turnover following Mergers
and Acquisitionsrdquo, Strategic Management Journal 9: 173?183.
Walsh, J.P.: 1989, ldquoDoing a Deal: Merger and Acquisition Negotiations
and their Impact upon Target Company Top Management Turnoverrdquo,
Strategic Management Journal 10: 307-322
Walsh, J.P. and J.W. Ellwood: 1991, ldquoMergers, Acquisitions, and
the Pruning of Managerial Dead-wood: An Examination of the Market
for Corporate Controlrdquo, Strategic Management Journal 12: 201?217.
Walsh, J.P. and R.D. Kosnik: 1993, ldquoCorporate Raiders and their
Disciplinary Role in the Market of Corporate Controlrdquo, Academy
of Management Journal 36: 671?700.
Warner, J.B., R.L. Watts and K.H. Wruck: 1988, ldquoStock Prices and
Top Management Changesrdquo, Journal of Financial Economics 20: 461?492.
Weisbach, M.S.: 1988, ldquoOutside Directors and CEO Turnoverrdquo,
Journal of Financial Economics 20: 431?460.
Wiersema, M.F. and K.A. Bantel: 1992, ldquoTop Management Team Demography
and Corporate Strategic Changerdquo, Academy of Management Journal
35: 91?121.
Williams, L.J. and J.T. Hazer: 1986, ldquoAntecedents and Consequences
of Satisfaction and Commitment in Turnover Models: A Reanalysis using
Latent Variable Structural Equation Methodsrdquo, Journal of Applied
Psychology 71: 219?231.
Woodward, D. and D. Nigh (eds.): 1998, Foreign Ownership and the Consequences
of Direct Investment in the United States: Beyond Us and Them (Westport,
CT: Quorum Books).
Youngblood, S.A., W.H. Mobley and B.M. Meglino: 1983, ldquoA Longitudinal
Analysis of the Turnover Processrdquo, Journal of Applied Psychology
68: 507?516.
Zaheer, S.: 1995, ldquoOvercoming the Liability of Foreignnessrdquo,
Academy of Management Journal 38: 341?363.